1. INTRODUCTION:
There
is increasing evidence indicating that reactive oxygen species (ROS, e.g., 02-
and OH-) and free radical-mediated reactions causing oxidative
damage to biomolecules (e.g., lipids, proteins, and DNA), which leads to aging,
cancer, atherosclerosis, coronary heart ailment, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease,
and other neurodegenerative disorders1.
Free radicals also involves in a wide range of toxic
oxidative reactions like initiation of the peroxidation of the membrane lipids
which eventually leads to the accumulation of lipid peroxides, inhibits
mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes, causes fragmentation or random cross
linking of biomolecules which causes cell death. Free radicals also involves in
destroying the naturally occurring antioxidant enzymes like superoxide
dismutase, catalase and peroxidase; causing destruction and lethal apoptosis
through oxidization of membrane lipids, cellular proteins, DNA and enzymes.
In a recent research it has
been stated that people who consume a wide variety of food which contains
phyto-pharmaceutical like carotenoids, fibers, flavonoids, phytoestrogens,
vitamins and minerals, shows a reduced occurrence of some diseases and tends to
have a better health2.
Medicinal
plants is one of the important source of free radical scavenging molecules,
such as phenolic compounds (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonoids, quinones,
coumarins, lignans, lignin, stilbenes, and tannins), nitrogen compounds (e.g.,
alkaloids and amines), vitamins, terpenoids, and other endogenous metabolites.
There have been many studies on the antioxidant activities of various medicinal
plants 3.
However, the resources of medicinal
plants are being reduced significantly due to over-harvesting, illegal
exploitation and destruction of ecological habitat and thus, there is a need to
conserve endangered medicinal plants and to develop new alternative sources for
developing antioxidants from plants. One
of the best alternatives is endophytes which are the organisms that inhabit
living plants at some stage in their life, without causing apparent harm to the
host 4. These endophytes
from medicinal plants may be useful as a significant source of antioxidants.
2.
Endophytes:
Endophytes involves in the
growth of host plant and in the formation of secondary metabolites related to
plant defense and it has been found in all parts of plants including xylem and
phloem 5. In consideration
of host-endophyte interaction, endophytes are not host specific. Single
endophytes can have a wide host range and studies suggest that some specific
strains of the fungus isolated from different parts of the same host differ in
their ability to utilize different substances. So endophytes can be obtained
from different plants belonging to different families, classes and can be grown
under different ecological and geographical conditions. Host endophyte
relationship may be variable from host to host and endophyte6. Endophytes provide a wide
variety of structurally unique bioactive natural products, such as alkaloids,
benzopyranones, chinones, flavonoids, phenolic acids, quinones, steroids,
terpenoids, tetralones, xanthones and others 7.
Endophytic
microbes seems to be a natural ‘warehouse’, approximately 300000 plant species
are unexplored on the earth, which are having one or more endophytes. It shows
the presence of greatest biodiversity of endophytes considering that only a
small amount of endophytes have been studied. Several research groups have been
motivated to find the potential of these microorganisms for production of
active molecules, since these microbes plays a role in production of
pharmacologically active substances with low toxicity toward mammalians. These
microbes can produce bioactive compounds themselves similarly as that of
plants, or can alter the metabolites produced by the plant. Hence, these
microbes can be used as a promising alternative for establishing an
inexhaustible, less time consuming, cost-effective renewable resource of
high-value natural compound which act as a novel pharmaceutical agents 8. Recent studies have
reported most of the natural products from endophytes are antibiotics,
anticancer agents, biological control agents and other bioactive compounds and
they have not been widely explored for therapeutic properties9. Although studies on
endophytes have been developed still there are problems exist in following
areas.
The natural products obtain
from endophytes are usually too low to evaluate and identify.
The
studies on endophytes have been conducted by culturing. However, the actual
diversity of endophyte colonizing plants have been decreased, not all of
endophytes can be cultured by this approach, so the chance of obtaining natural
products from these uncultured endophytes is limited 10.
3. Bioactive Natural Products as an Important Source in the Drug Discovery
Process:
There is an increased need
for new antibiotics, chemotherapeutic agents and agrochemicals that are highly
effective, possessing low toxicity, and should have a less environmental
impact. Natural product is one of the best way to meet these criteria. These
products are naturally derived metabolites and/or by-products from
microorganisms, plants or animals 11
and it has a wide range of applications in pharmaceutical, agriculture and
industries.
The discovery of natural
products involves isolation from the source, structural elucidation and
establishing the bio-synthetic pathway of the secondary metabolites. Due to the
wide structural diversity, complexity and various bioactivities of isolated
compounds, this area has been more interested to researchers. Crude natural
products have been used directly as drugs since it is low cost and one of the
important sources of traditional medicines. They also provide the basic
chemical architecture for deriving semi-synthetic natural products 12.
The
best example of natural product derived drug is paclitaxel (Taxol), from the
yew tree which is a most important breakthrough in drug discovery from natural
products. Many drug companies have developed interests in making products which
are having social benefits, reduced symptoms of allergies and arthritis, or
that can soothe the stomach 11.
4. Importance of Fungal Endophytes:
Fungi
are the most important groups among eukaryotic organisms that are well known
for producing many novel metabolites which are directly used as drugs or used
as lead structures for synthetic modifications .some examples of medicinal
drugs from fungal origin is antibiotic penicillin from Penicillium sp.,
the immunosuppressant cyclosporine from Tolypocladium inflatum and Cylindrocarpon
lucidum, the antifungal agent griseofulvin from Penicillium griseofulvum
fungus, the cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor lovastatin from Aspergillus
terreus fungus, and β-lactam antibiotics from various fungal
taxa12.
Plant endophytic fungi have been considered as an important and
novel resource of natural bioactive products, since the most important
bioactive compound paclitaxel (taxol) discovered from the endophytic fungus Taxomyces
andreanae in 1993, many scientists have been interested in studying fungal
endophytes as potential producers of novel bioactive compounds 1.
Endophytic fungi residing
in the plant host involves continual metabolic interaction with the host 5. There has been increased
in the number of US patents filed on endophytic fungi producing important
metabolites with different biological activities 8. The interaction
between fungal endophyte and host is controlled at the gene level, involving
genes of both host and endophyte which are modulated by the environment 13.
4.1. Antioxidants from
Fungal Endophytes:
Many endophytic fungi have
been identified to show antioxidant activity. Pestacin
(1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran) and isopestacin (isobenzofuranone) bioactive compound obtained from an
endophytic fungus such as P.microspora from Terminalia morobensis is
able to scavenge superoxide and hydroxyl free radicals. The antioxidant
activity of isopestacin is due to its structural similarity to
flavonoids and activity of pestacin is due to cleavage of an unusually
reactive C-H bond and to a lesser extent, though O-H abstraction 13.
Several efforts have been
made to estimate the total number of fungi association with plants. The
magnitude of fungal diversity estimated about 1.5 million (more accurately 1.62
million) species, later revised by 2.27 million 14. The research progression on antioxidant compounds
produced by endophytic fungi from various medicinal plants is discussed in
table 1.
5. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES:
The special ability of plant endophytic fungi, to produce the
same or similar compounds as from their host plants, and also other bioactive
compounds, have increased the interest to many researchers to carry out the
research in this area. This review has highlighted importance of fungal
endophytes and some of the antioxidant compounds produced from endophytic
fungi.
In the future, studies on the isolation and identification of
new endophytic fungi strains which produce antioxidant compounds will be of
great interest to the researchers since the new source of antioxidant compounds
will provide a promising chance to decrease the risk of diseases due to
oxidative damage.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
The authors of this paper would like to thank the
Management of VIT University for supporting.
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